“I thank the Lord for His help,” a conquering soldier exclaims. Meanwhile, across the lonely battlefield, another young combatant silently retreats, wondering why the same God didn’t bring his side success, even though he too had prayed for victory. This example highlights one of the difficulties in attributing the divine hand to history. When does God intervene in the dealings of mankind? In providential terms, does he only exercise general rather than specific providence?[1] If He is involved at the personal level, does He similarly direct the global? If He rules over nations, does He also direct all of their affairs? At what point, if ever, does individual agency factor into the equation?[2] For Latter-day Saints, the scriptures, both ancient and modern, attest to the divine hand in history. However, they also illustrate the limits to that interaction, balancing His overruling, omnipotent hand with related principles of omniscience, causation, and agency.[3]
A Purpose of Scripture – Declaring the Divine Hand
Theologians, philosophers, and historians have long debated the place of divine providence in human affairs. The very notion of “destined history,” Brenda Deen Schildgen, professor of comparative literature, argues in a recent book, “has many precedents and has evolved into many versions,” including Jewish beliefs of a covenantal relationship between God and his people Israel, Roman declarations of destiny, early Christian longings for the establishment of the kingdom of God, and even a secularized version in the form of the American expression of Manifest Destiny. Expanding beyond the specific religious context, “one can argue that the religious explanations of destiny and providence remain deeply embedded in modern secular understandings of historical reality.” Schildgen asserts that even faith that the march of progress will solve worldwide problems of suffering is rooted in the philosophical influence of providential thought.[4]
Among the earliest Christian writers to examine the hand of God in history, fourth century theologians Orosius and Augustine presented two different views of divine providence. On the one hand, Orosius’ History combines secular with sacred history, connecting providence to the movements and destiny of nations in a literalist approach, in which God exercised oversight of the destiny of specific nations. For his part, Orosius’ mentor, Augustine, “absolutely rejects the idea that any land or place (and therefore political history) is permanently blessed with moral or material superiority to any other.” In his classic text, City of God, Augustine calls “into question these notions of divinely orchestrated political and military triumph.”[5] Over time, these varying interpretations came to dominate Christian thought. “From the end of the ancient world to the fifteenth century,” Schildgen concluded, “the western Latin world interpreted history from the often contradictory viewpoints of Augustine and Orosius.”[6]
Beginning with primitive Christianity, across the Middle Ages, and during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, perspectives on providence influenced religious thought, especially as it was interpreted in scripture.[7] Eventually, as historian Brian Q. Cannon outlines in a previous chapter, the Enlightenment challenged the notion of a providential history, causing historical writing to “become overwhelmingly secular and empirical.”[8] At the same time, as Catholic theologian and providential historian Stephen H. Webb argues, “Darwin sucked all the air out of providence for many Christians,” causing events previously attributed to God’s omnipotence to instead be ascribed “to natural processes and human ingenuity.”[9] Today, “most Christian theologians,” observes Christopher Mooney, “no longer think of their Scriptures as the ahistorical revelation of God, but as a divine revelation mediated by time and circumstance, whose meaning develops in the course of history.”[10] Contemporary providential historians who still work in the field grapple with these professional and societal trends.
Interestingly, during Christianity’s general abandonment of providence, Latter-day Saint beliefs arose, as one scholar calls it, as “the apotheosis [or climax] of providential speculation.”[11] From a Latter-day Saint perspective, an overwhelming message of all scripture, ancient and modern, is that God does providentially interact in the affairs of mankind. In fact, testifying of His hand is one of scripture’s specific functions. President Joseph F. Smith summarized, “The hand of the Lord may not be visible to all. There may be many who cannot discern the workings of God’s will in the progress and development of this great latter-day work, but there are those who see in every hour and in every moment of the existence of the Church, from its beginning until now, the overruling, almighty hand of him who sent his Only Begotten Son to the world.”[12]
The authors of scripture are among those who recognize divine intervention. Two primary purposes of their writings are to declare the hand of God in interactions with mankind and preserve that knowledge for future generations. The title page of the Book of Mormon, for example, highlights one of the book’s purposes, “To show unto the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers.” Similarly, latter-day revelation declares that the Book of Mormon “[proves] to the world that the holy scriptures are true, and that God does inspire men and call them to his holy work in this age and generation, as well as in generations of old” (D&C 20:11). Clearly, scripture both ancient and modern testifies that God interacts in mankind’s history.
Trust in the Bible and latter-day revelation commits the believer to certain positions regarding providential history. But, how does this commit him or her in regards to a belief in providential history? Doctrinally, the biblical text continually asserts that “God is the King of all the earth” (Psalms 47:7). Moses reminded the children of Israel that the Lord is “God in heaven above, and upon the earth beneath: there is none else” (Deuteronomy 4:39). In modern revelation, the Lord reiterates that He “ruleth over all flesh” (D&C 133:61). Throughout these scriptural texts, claims like these regarding God’s all-powerful existence are presented as well as specific examples of His interactions with His children. Additionally, these same scriptural witnesses address the related issues of agency, intervention, and allowance associated with providential history. How do scriptures address issues of agency, intervention, and allowance? When and why does God direct individuals and nations? When and why does He refrain? The authors of scripture offer insights to these important questions.
Declaring the Existence of God
Before analyzing the intervention of God in history, one must first establish the reality of a Supreme Being. In fact, chief among the doctrinal assertions in scripture regarding providential interactions with mankind are simple declarations of God’s existence. The Lectures on Faith emphasize that in order to have real “faith in God unto life and salvation,” one must “first, [have] the idea that He actually exists.”[13] On His reality, the scriptural record is firm.
Through interactions with His children, especially in the form of divine visitations and communications, God affirms His existence. This primary doctrinal assertion is supported by numerous examples. Adam and Eve had a personal knowledge of God in the Garden of Eden, and were later instructed by an angel from the divine presence regarding the plan of salvation (Moses 4:14-25; 5:6-12, Alma 12:29-30). Early in the scriptural record, the account declares that both Enoch and Noah “walked with God” (Genesis 5:22; 6:9). Generations later, “the word of the Lord came unto Abram in a vision” (Genesis 15:1-5), a message reaffirmed when the Lord “appeared unto Abram” (Genesis 17:1-5). Extending Abraham’s blessings to his posterity, “the Lord appeared unto [Isaac]” (Genesis 26:24) and later Jacob (Genesis 28:13; 35:9). From these examples, the record of the early patriarchs is clear: God’s existence is real, evidenced by His appearing to mankind.
As textual detail increases in the biblical record, more information is provided regarding God’s personal appearances. Following an experience wrestling with the Lord, Jacob declared, “I have seen God face to face” (Genesis 32:30). Later, the scriptural record asserts the same for Moses, “The Lord spake unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend” (Exodus 33:11). A personal knowledge of God by having seen Him, in fact, becomes the apparent hallmark of the prophet of the exodus. At the end of Moses’ life, the Bible eulogizes, “And there arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face” Deuteronomy 34:10).
Though the biblical record highlights the unique place of Moses, the knowledge of God’s existence through personal experience with Him was not reserved merely for Israel’s great lawgiver. Moses himself, in fact, “sought diligently to sanctify his people that they might behold the face of God” (D&C 84:23), a desire partially fulfilled when he, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel “saw the God of Israel” (Exodus 24:9-10). Later, though Moses was taken out of their midst, personal interaction with the divine continued with His people. “The Lord appeared to Solomon in a dream by night,” granting his desire for “a wise and an understanding heart” (1 Kings 3:5, 12). Isaiah testified that he “saw . . . the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted up” (Isaiah 6:1), as did Ezekiel and Amos (Ezekiel 1:26, Amos 9:1).
While Malachi concludes the Old Testament as “the end of the prophets,” the witness of God’s existence persists into the New Testament. Indeed, John’s gospel opens, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. . . . And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us” (John 1:1, 14). Later, when asked by Philip to “shew us the Father,” that same Word declared, “He that hath seen me hath seen the Father” (John 14:8-9). In the New Testament record, seeing and believing in the Son is the same as seeing and believing in His Father.
As the gospels clearly describe the interactions of the Son of God with mankind, they also contain examples of the existence of the Father Himself. At the baptism of the Savior, a voice from heaven declared, “This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased” (Matthew 3:17). Later, on the Mount of Transfiguration, the same voice repeated the same supernal message (Matthew 17:5). Following the resurrection and ascension of Christ, the New Testament continues to testify of God’s existence, including the vision of the Father and the Son by Stephen (Acts 7:55) and the personal appearance of Christ to Paul (Acts 9:3-5). In multiple instances, the biblical record affirms the existence of God.
For Latter-day Saints, biblical claims concerning the reality of God and Christ are supported by modern scriptures asserting the same truth. Throughout the Book of Mormon, for example, prophets frequently refer to experiences with members of the Godhead. Early in the text, Nephi, under the tutelage of an angel, describes his seeing in vision “the mother of the Son of God . . . bearing a child in her arms” (1 Nephi 11:14, 18, 20). [14] His vision continues with the baptism, ministry, and death of Christ. Later in the text, Nephi further asserts that both he and his brother Jacob, like Isaiah, had seen their Redeemer (2 Nephi 11:2-3). Following Nephi’s ministry, Jacob revealed that he “had heard the voice of the Lord speaking unto [him] in very word, from time to time; wherefore, [he] could not be shaken” (Jacob 7:5). Concluding the record, Moroni likewise declared, “I have seen Jesus, and . . . he hath talked with me face to face” (Ether 12:39).[15]
As was evident in the Bible experience of Moses and the seventy elders of Israel, accounts of seeing the Lord in the Book of Mormon are not reserved merely for prophets. Prophetic encounters with God in the Book of Mormon are supported by non-prophetic experiences. Following two days and two nights when he was “carried away in God” (Alma 19:6), the converted King Lamoni declared to his household, “I have seen my Redeemer” (Alma 19:13). Even more dramatically, thousands in the new world later witnessed the resurrected Lord himself, while He ministered to them as recorded in 3 Nephi. Here, as He had done at the baptism and the Mount of Transfiguration, the voice of the Father was again heard, testifying of His Beloved Son (3 Nephi 11:7).
In addition to these ancient texts, modern revelation similarly testifies of God’s existence through personal interaction with His children. The opening of this dispensation began with a personal appearance of God the Father and Jesus Christ and the same declaration, “This is My Beloved Son. Hear Him!” (JSH 1:17), found in earlier examples. The visionary witnesses continued, with the Prophet and Sidney Rigdon seeing, like Stephen in the New Testament, “the glory of the Son, on the right hand of the Father” (D&C 76:20). Four years later, Joseph again saw “the blazing throne of God, whereon was seated the Father and the Son” (D&C 137:3). A week after the Kirtland temple dedication, Joseph Smith and Olivery Cowdery testified, “We saw the Lord standing upon the breastwork of the pulpit . . . His eyes were as flames of fire; the hair of his head was white like the pure snow; his countenance shone above the brightness of the sun; and his voice was as the sound of the rushing of great waters, even the voice of Jehovah” (D&C 110:2-3). Most recently, Joseph F. Smith added his testimony to these witnesses of the divine when he beheld in vision “the advent of the Son of God into the spirit world” (D&C 138:16). From these and many more examples, scripture supports the Lectures on Faith’s first prerequisite for powerful faith. A belief in the divine record commits the reader to a belief in the existence of God.
Declaring God’s Attributes, Character, and Perfections
Declaring the existence of the Divine, through personal experience with individuals, is only one purpose of scripture however. These accounts are, after all, more than mere social calls by the Godhead. As it relates to God’s hand in history, the scriptural text asserts not only that He exists, but that He interacts in the affairs of His children. After outlining “the idea that [God] actually exists” as the first element of profound faith, Lectures on Faith describes the next requirement: “Secondly, a correct idea of his character, perfections, and attributes.”[16] The scriptures highlight elements of His character that help us understand how, when, and why He providentially interacts in the lives of His children. Theologian Stephen H. Webb summarizes, “The premise of the Bible is that God’s actions reveal God’s nature.”[17]
Supremacy of God. One characteristic of God evident in scripture is His supremacy, a fact stressed in John’s Revelation that, “the Lamb shall overcome [all who oppose Him] . . . for he is Lord of lords and King of kings” (Revelation 17:14). The Lord reveals to the Book of Mormon prophet Jacob the same conclusion, “He that raiseth up a king against me shall perish, for I, the Lord, the king of heaven, will be their king, and I will be a light unto them forever, that hear my words” (2 Nephi 10:14). In modern revelation, the Doctrine and Covenants likewise asserts, “Here, O ye heavens, and give ear, O earth, and rejoice ye inhabitants thereof, for the Lord is God, and beside him there is no Savior” (D&C 76:1).
Possibly nowhere is the supremacy of God clearer than in the Old Testament, as Jeremiah declared, “The Lord is the true God, he is the living God, and an everlasting king” (Jeremiah 10:10). In fact, numerous instances from this scriptural text assert God’s supremacy. In the midst of calling down plagues on Egypt, for example, Moses gave Pharaoh the purpose for the display, “That thou mayest know that there is none like unto the Lord our God” (Exodus 8:10). Summarizing the lesson, the Lord continued, “Thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son, and of thy son’s son, what things I have wrought in Egypt. . . . That ye may know how that I am the Lord” (Exodus 10:2). Centuries later, David taught the lesson of the supremacy of Israel’s God to the Philistines. When their champion Goliath “cursed David by his gods,” the youth responded, “Thou comest to me with a sword, and with a spear, and with a shield: but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the armies of Israel, whom thou hast defied. This day will the Lord deliver thee into mine hand . . . that all the earth may know that there is a God in Israel. And all this assembly shall know that the Lord saveth not with sword and spear: for the battle is the Lord’s, and he will give you into our hands” (1 Samuel 17:43-47). Through God’s providential interaction, the reader is taught to recognize God’s supremacy.[18]
Asserting that God is supreme establishes some practical conclusions for providential history. Importantly, it establishes a priority on His truths. If God is supreme, so are His interventions. Speaking to a BYU devotional audience, Jewish Rabbi Harold S. Kushner made the astute observation, “When we say, in your tradition and in mine, that there is only one God, that is not a mathematical statement, it is a moral statement. To affirm that there is one God is not the census report from heaven. To say that there is only one God is to claim that there is such a thing as right and wrong. If there are many gods, you cannot talk about absolute right and wrong.” Clarifying his point, Rabbi Kushner continued, “You’ll remember what it was like in the Iliad during the Trojan War. What one god permits, another god forbids. What one god favors, another god denounces. In a world of many equally powerful deities, the issue is not, what does God want of us? The issue is, which god shall I serve? Which god has the power to bless and protect me? But if there is a single God, then you can claim he has built standards into the world of right and wrong, of moral good and evil, that are as fixed as the laws of gravity.”[19] Declaring the supremacy of God does this for an understanding of His hand in history. If He is supreme, His interactions are as well, even when they go unrecognized by His children.
Omnipotence of God. Related to God’s supremacy is His omnipotence. Not only is God hierarchically the greatest, His power is limitless. Again, by declaration and example, the scriptural record asserts this truth. Early in the biblical account, the Lord appeared to childless Abram, calling Himself “the Almighty God” (Genesis 17:1). Promising Abraham and Sarah their long-awaited child, the record questions, “Is any thing too hard for the Lord?” (Genesis 18:14). Indeed, the remainder of the biblical record seems to witness that nothing is impossible for Him. God has power to help the barren give birth (1 Samuel 1), part the sea (Exodus 14), bring water from a rock (Exodus 17), heal the sick (2 Kings 5), and raise the dead (2 Kings 4). In the New Testament, His Son has power to calm the sea (Mark 4), walk on water (Matthew 14), feed the multitudes (Matthew 14-15), and deliver the captive from sin and death (Luke 22-24). His omnipotence is again summarized by the angel to Mary, “For with God nothing shall be impossible” (Luke 1:37).
Latter-day scripture echoes the Bible’s claims of God’s omnipotence. Early in the Book of Mormon, the strength of God’s power is evident in the life of Nephi. Emboldening his brothers to complete their assigned mission to retrieve the brass plates, Nephi encouraged, “Let us be faithful in keeping the commandments of the Lord; for behold he is mightier than the earth, then why not mightier than Laban and his fifty, yea, or even than his tens of thousands?” (1 Nephi 4:1). Stemming a rebellious desire by his brothers to return to Jerusalem, Nephi later asserts, “How is it that ye have forgotten that the Lord is able to do all things according to his will, for the children of men, if it so be that they exercise faith in him?” (1 Nephi 7:12). Responding to their doubts about his ability to build a ship, Nephi concluded: “And now, if the Lord has such great power, and has wrought so many miracles among the children of men, how is it that he cannot instruct me, that I should build a ship?” (1 Nephi 17:50-51). Nephi’s life seems to echo the scriptural message: God’s children can access His all-powerful, providential hand by obedience to His commands.
Successors to Nephi in the Book of Mormon reiterate the message. King Benjamin reminded his people, “Believe in God; believe that he is, and that he created all things, both in heaven and in earth; believe that he has all wisdom, and all power, both in heaven and in earth” (Mosiah 4:9). Glorying in the Lord and their missionary success, Ammon declared, “Now have we not reason to rejoice? Yea, I say unto you, there never were men that had so great reason to rejoice as we, since the world began; yea, and my joy is carried away, even unto boasting in my God; for he has all power, all wisdom, and all understanding” (Alma 26:35). Latter-day scripture supports the biblical assertion. “Behold, and hearken unto the voice of him who has all power” (D&C 61:1).
In addition to the personal interactions evidenced in these numerous examples, the scriptures also illustrate divine intervention in the destinies of armies, countries, and kingdoms. God’s omnipotent hand is felt both at the individual and at the global level. Encouraging the children of Israel in the face of Pharaoh’s chariots, Moses promised, “Fear ye not, stand still, and see the salvation of the Lord. . . . The Lord shall fight for you” (Exodus 14:13-14). Assisting Joshua in conquering the promised land, the Bible records, “The Lord cast down great stones from heaven upon them . . . and [Israel’s enemies] died: they were more which died with hailstones than they whom the children of Israel slew with the sword. . . . And there was no day like that before it or after it, that the Lord hearkened unto the voice of a man: for the Lord fought for Israel” (Joshua 10:11, 14). Later, when attacked by the mighty Assyrian army, the Lord through Isaiah declared, “I will defend this city to save it for mine own sake, and for my servant David’s sake” (Isaiah 37:35). Fulfilling His word, “the angel of the Lord went forth, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians a hundred and four-score and five thousand: and when they arose early in the morning, behold, they were all dead corpses” (Isaiah 37:36). From these scriptural examples, it is apparent that God not only involves himself personally in the lives of His children, He also promises to fight the battles of His people (see D&C 98:37).
God’s Hand Among All. Additionally, the scriptural record is clear that God’s providence is not limited to interaction with His covenant people. Elder Orson F. Whitney observed, “Providence is over all, and . . . he holds the nations in the hollow of his hand. . . . He is using not only his covenant people, but other peoples as well, to consummate a work, stupendous, magnificent, and altogether too arduous for this little handful of Saints to accomplish by and of themselves. . . . He sways the scepter over all nations, and they are all playing into his hands, knowingly or unknowingly.”[20] Supporting Elder Whitney’s claim, the Bible highlights times when God even used other nations to vex His own covenant people. Leading up to the Babylonian captivity, the record says of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, “And the Lord sent against him bands of the Chaldees, and bands of the Syrians, and bands of the Moabites, and bands of the children of Ammon, and sent them against Judah to destroy it, according to the word of the Lord, which he spake by his servants the prophets” (2 Kings 24:1). Following their repentance, the Lord later freed Judah, again by the hand of a Gentile. “In the first year of Cyrus king of Persia . . . ,” the Bible describes, “the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation, throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the kingdoms of the earth hath the Lord God of heaven given me; and he hath charged me to build him an house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Who is there among you of all his people? The Lord his God be with him, and let him go up” (2 Chronicles 36:22-23).
The Book of Mormon and Doctrine and Covenants similarly witness that God’s providential hand is not limited to those of His Church. Prior to the restoration of the gospel, Nephi described the mission of Christopher Columbus and other historical figures, observing, “I beheld the Spirit of God, that it came down and wrought upon the man; and he went forth upon the many waters, even unto the seed of my brethren, who were in the promised land. And it came to pass that I beheld the Spirit of God, that it wrought upon other Gentiles; and they went forth out of captivity, upon the many waters” (1 Nephi 13:12-13). Describing their subsequent battles for religious and political freedom, Nephi continued acknowledging the guiding hand of God, “And I beheld that their mother Gentiles were gathered together upon the waters, and upon the land also, to battle against them. And I beheld that the power of God was with them, and also that the wrath of God was upon all those that were gathered together against them to battle. And I, Nephi, beheld that the Gentiles that had gone out of captivity were delivered by the power of God out of the hands of all other nations” (1 Nephi 13:17-19).
Detailing the freedoms that they eventually established, the Lord further declared His providential hand, “For this purpose have I established the Constitution of this land, by the hands of wise men whom I raised up unto this very purpose, and redeemed the land by the shedding of blood” (D&C 101:80). The principles of the Constitution were to be maintained for the rights and protection of “all flesh” (D&C 101:77). Prophetic commentary supports this claim, expanding divine providence beyond the guidance offered the American founding fathers. “God raised up wise leaders among your progenitors which afforded Latin American countries political freedom and independence,” Elder Ezra Taft Benson told the saints in Bolivia. “I only mention the names of a few whom God raised up to accomplish His holy and sovereign purposes: Jose de San Martin, Bernardo O’Higgins, and Simon Bolivar. These were some of the ‘founding fathers’ of your continent. I believe,” Elder Benson continued, “it was very significant that when independence came to the countries of South America, governments were established on constitutional principles-some patterned after the Constitution of the United States. I believe this was a very necessary step which preceded the preaching of the gospel in South America.”[21]
Omniscience of God. Balancing the supremacy, omnipotence, and intervention of God is the related power of His omniscience. Not only is God supreme and all-powerful, He is also all knowing. This divine characteristic relates to providential history in several ways. First, God is aware of everything. Commenting on his own lack of understanding, especially relating to adding the small plates of Nephi to his record, Mormon observed, “I do not know all things” (Words of Mormon 1:7). However, Mormon quickly added, “But the Lord knoweth all things which are to come; wherefore he worketh in me to do according to his will” (Words of Mormon 1:7). Indeed, the inclusion of the plates in the record proved providential, as centuries later Joseph Smith and Martin Harris lost the manuscript covering a portion of the large plates. Jacob emphasized the same principal. “O how great the holiness of our God!,” he exclaimed. “For he knoweth all things, and there is not anything save he knows it” (2 Nephi 9:20). To Joseph Smith, the Lord similarly declared, “Thus saith the Lord your God, even Jesus Christ, the Great I AM, Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the same which looked upon the wide expanse of eternity, and all the seraphic hosts of heaven, before the world was made; The same which knoweth all things, for all things are present before mine eyes” (D&C 38:1-2).
Foreknowledge, however, is not causation, an important limitation to providential history. Just because we know the sun will rise tomorrow does not mean that we cause it. Just because the Lord can say, through Isaiah, “Before it came to pass I shewed it unto thee” (Isaiah 48:5) does not mean that God necessarily causes everything that comes to pass. Since God is all-powerful, He could do everything. However, there seems to be a difference between what God causes and what He allows.
Providentially, God’s omnipotence is, at times, constrained by His omniscience. Because He knows what is best for His children, God sees all things and interacts, or chooses not to interact, accordingly. “Do not suppose that God willfully causes that which, for his own purposes, he permits,” cautioned President Boyd K. Packer. “When you know the plan and purpose of it all, even these things will manifest a loving Father in Heaven.”[22] On this point, scriptural examples are again helpful. King Benjamin, in fact, succinctly highlighted the dilemma that God could do all but sometimes doesn’t. Immediately after teaching that God “has all wisdom, and all power, both in heaven and in earth,” he followed with the thought, “Believe that man doth not comprehend all the things which the Lord can comprehend” (Mosiah 4:9).[23] During times when God’s omnipotence doesn’t seem to solve a particular problem, this helpful insight regarding comprehension may be our most comforting retreat. In this and other Book of Mormon messages, omnipotence is balanced by comprehension, the apparent wise use of power.
Causation and Allowance by God
The distinction between causing and allowing something aids in one of the major dilemmas presented by a belief in providential history. The problem is a clear one: If God providentially acts in the lives of people, why doesn’t He always appear to intercede? How do those with a belief in providential involvement reconcile apparent times when the heavens seem silent?
This problem of theodicy, or how a loving, all-powerful God can allow suffering or evil in the world, has dominated twentieth century discussions of providence.[24] Theologian Stephen Webb argued that this has been, in part, because “the twentieth century was so full, in equal parts, of utopian views of history and record-setting levels of suffering and murder.”[25] From a Catholic perspective, evil is not attributed to God, but rather allowed by him. Though sin and suffering are contrary both to God’s purposes and to the good of individuals, the omnipotent providence of God can ultimately realize good from them.[26] From this interpretation, “God wills evil not in itself but for the good toward which it is directed. . . . Since He cares for all things, God allows deficiencies in individual instances to bring about the good of the universe.”[27] Evangelical Christians agree, declaring that God does not cause people to sin and while “evil is always evil . . . God is able to take the evil that human beings do and incorporate that into his plan.” Furthermore, God can work his divine will through human suffering.[28]
Latter-day Saint perspectives on theodicy resonate with these viewpoints. President Spencer W. Kimball poignantly illustrated the problem from a Latter-day Saint perspective:
The daily newspaper screamed the headlines: “Plane Crash Kills 43. No Survivors of Mountain Tragedy,” and thousands of voices joined in a chorus: “Why did the Lord let this terrible thing happen?”
Two automobiles crashed when one went through a red light, and six people were killed. Why would God not prevent this?
Why should the young mother die of cancer and leave her eight children motherless? Why did not the Lord heal her?
A little child was drowned; another was run over. Why?
A man died one day suddenly of a coronary occlusion as he climbed a stairway. His body was found slumped on the floor. His wife cried out in agony, “Why? Why would the Lord do this to me? Could he not have considered my three little children who still need a father?”
A young man died in the mission field and people critically questioned: “Why did not the Lord protect this youth while he was doing proselyting work?”[29]
Explaining these painful examples, President Kimball summarized, “I wish I could answer these questions with authority, but I cannot. I am sure that sometime we’ll understand and be reconciled. But for the present we must seek understanding as best we can in the gospel principles.”[30] Highlighting some of these principles, including the doctrines of agency and omniscience related to providential involvement, President Kimball continued,
Was it the Lord who directed the plane into the mountain to snuff out the lives of its occupants, or were there mechanical faults or human errors?
Did our Father in heaven cause the collision of the cars that took six people into eternity, or was it the error of the driver who ignored safety rules?
Did God take the life of the young mother or prompt the child to toddle into the canal or guide the other child into the path of the oncoming car?
Did the Lord cause the man to suffer a heart attack? Was the death of the missionary untimely? Answer, if you can. I cannot, for though I know God has a major role in our lives, I do not know how much he causes to happen and how much he merely permits. Whatever the answer to this question, there is another I feel sure about.
Could the Lord have prevented these tragedies? The answer is, Yes. The Lord is omnipotent, with all power to control our lives, save us pain, prevent all accidents, drive all planes and cars, feed us, protect us, save us from labor, effort, sickness, even from death, if he will. But he will not.[31]
In this interpretation, President Kimball echoes the free-will defense of many Christian theologians as they grapple with the existence of evil in the world. British philosopher of religion Richard Swinburne summarized the position, “It is such a good thing that humans should have free will that it is worth the risk that they will abuse it in various way.”[32] From a providential perspective, the difference between causation and allowance, balanced by God’s omniscient comprehension helps explain the apparent dilemma: If God is all powerful, why doesn’t He stop certain things? Like so many others, Joseph Smith himself seems to have struggled with this question. Reminding the Lord of His omnipotence, the Prophet cried out from Liberty Jail, “O God, where art thou? . . . O Lord God Almighty, maker of heaven, earth, and seas, and of all things that in them are, and who controllest and subjectest the devil, and the dark and benighted dominion of Sheol—stretch forth thy hand; let thy eye pierce; let thy pavilion be taken up; let thy hiding place no longer be covered; let thine ear be inclined; let thine heart be softened, and thy bowels moved with compassion toward us. Let thine anger be kindled against our enemies; and, in the fury of thine heart, with thy sword avenge us of our wrongs. Remember thy suffering saints, O our God; and thy servants will rejoice in thy name forever” (D&C 121:1, 4-6). Responding, the Lord reminded Joseph that judgment would come upon the wicked in God’s time (see D&C 121:11-25), but that Joseph had to trust that this trial would give him experience and turn for his good (D&C 122:7). This lesson was summarized by President Kimball, “In the face of apparent tragedy we must put our trust in God, knowing that despite our limited view his purposes will not fail. With all its troubles life offers us the tremendous privilege to grow in knowledge and wisdom, faith and works, preparing to return and share God’s glory.”[33]
Latter-day Saints share with the rest of Christianity a forward looking, eternal reward perspective that makes divine providence tenable in the face of evil. In this they join “most Christian thinkers [who] have held . . . that God has allowed the bad to occur for some good purpose—whether or not we know what that purpose is.”[34] Additional Latter-day Saint scriptural insight into the necessity for “opposition in all thing” and the nature of eternal rewards adds greater understanding (see 2 Nephi 2:11-13, Alma 40:11-15; D&C 76, D&C 138). Pain, therefore, can bring about divine purposes. We learn from Joseph Smith’s experience that all things that we suffer will give us experience and are ultimately for our own good (D&C 122:5-7).
The Book of Mormon prophet Lehi declares further that righteousness and the happiness which results from it would not be possible without the existence of evil (2 Nephi 2:11-13). In fact, “exclude the possibility of suffering which the order of nature and the existence of free-wills involve,” proposed C. S. Lewis, “and you find that you have excluded life itself,”[35] This concords entirely with Lehi’s view that without opposition in all things there would be no existence (vs. 11, 13). Latter-day Saint thought supports the idea that inconsistencies and inequities will eventually be made right. “Providence can only be understood within the ultimate horizon of eschatology [or study of the Second Coming],” Stephen Webb argues. “History, for Christians, makes sense only if Christians have the courage to imagine how God will bring about the end.” If providence “loses this orientation toward the future,” it loses its power.[36]
Providential Non-Intervention
At times, God’s non-intervention also serves divine providence. The supreme example of God’s being able to intercede in history, but providentially deferring to do so, involves the gift of His Son, whose life and ministry mark the climax of divine providence.[37] Aware of His Father’s omnipotent ability to aid, the Savior cried out from the Garden of Gethsemane, “Father, if thou be willing, remove this cup from me” (Luke 22:42). Balancing God’s omnipotence with His omniscience, the Son quickly continued, “Nevertheless not my will, but thine, be done” (Luke 22:42). From a mortal perspective, the desire to relieve Christ’s suffering during his atonement is natural. “With such uncontrolled power,” President Kimball explained, “I surely would have felt to protect Christ from the agony in Gethsemane, the insults, the thorny crown, the indignities in the court, the physical injuries. I would have administered to his wounds and healed them, giving him cooling water instead of vinegar.”[38] Doing so, in fact, could have brought temporary relief. However, President Kimball concluded, “I might have saved him from suffering and death, and lost to the world his atoning sacrifice.”[39]
Like President Kimball’s insight on the atonement of Jesus Christ, looking at an event with hindsight can bring understanding to times when God opts not to providentially intervene. “Being human,” President Kimball continued, “we would expel from our lives physical pain and mental anguish and assure ourselves of continual ease and comfort, but if we were to close the doors upon sorrow and distress, we might be excluding our greatest friends and benefactors. Suffering can make saints of people as they learn patience, long-suffering, and self-mastery.”[40] From this perspective, not intervening in an event may, in the end, also be a providential act by God.
While many stumble on the issue of why God does not normally intervene to limit human suffering and injustice, it is helpful to recognize that the tests of mortality are part of Heavenly Father’s plan for the progress and development of his children. One must remember that the atonement of Christ, which will overcome death and compensate all wrongs and injustices, is an essential part of that plan. Bad things may indeed happen to good people, or those, who by human standard appear perfectly innocent. The gift of agency is so crucial to the divine plan that God will not infringe directly on people’s agency to prevent human inflicted misery, even of gigantic proportions. Wrongs, we understand, will ultimately be righted, but in the meantime, human disasters such as the destruction of war, holocausts, ethnic cleansing, slavery, and other human ills, which evil persons have inflicted on their fellow beings, have been allowed to occur.[41] As Alma declared, when brought to witness the martyrdom of the believers by the wicked rulers of Ammonihah, God “doth suffer that they may do this thing. . . according to the hardness of their hearts, that the judgements which he shall exercise upon them in his wrath may be just” (Alma 14: 11).
Yet face-to face with the personal reality of suffering and the magnitude of human injustice, such explanations may seem facile and puerile. Unlike God who sees things from an eternal perspective, we human beings in mortality are, as Elder Neal A. Maxwell observed, “locked in the dimension of time and contained within the tight perspective of this second estate.”[42] Hence, issues of human suffering may be very difficult, if not impossible, for us to fully understand. In the midst of a trial, therefore, questioning an omnipotent, yet omniscient God’s providence proves futile. Elder Robert D. Hales summarized, “I have come to understand how useless it is to dwell on the whys, what ifs, and if onlys for which there likely will be given no answers in mortality. To receive the Lord’s comfort, we must exercise faith. The questions Why me? Why our family? Why now? are usually unanswerable questions. These questions detract from our spirituality and can destroy our faith. We need to spend our time and energy building our faith by turning to the Lord and asking for strength to overcome the pains and trials of this world and to endure to the end for greater understanding.”[43]
Gaining greater understanding at the end of a trial was taught powerfully in the scriptures by the example of Joseph in Egypt, a character whose story is often used as a “key scriptural attestation to the doctrine of providence.”[44] At the end of his experience, reunited with his brothers after decades of separation, Joseph reassured his troubled brothers, attributing all that had happened to God’s providence, “Now therefore be not grieved, nor angry with yourselves, that ye sold me hither: for God did send me before you to preserve life. . . . And God sent me before you to preserve you a posterity in the earth, and to save your lives by a great deliverance. So it was not you that sent me hither, but God” (Genesis 45:5-8, emphasis added). “God works in mysterious ways,” one author noted of Joseph’s story, “but God does get the job done! . . . The story of Joseph shows God directing human actions, no matter how sinful, toward a good conclusion.”[45]
As in the case of Joseph in Egypt, divine insight regarding God’s intervening and not intervening will eventually come to the faithful. Latter-day scripture records the Lord’s promise, “Verily, verily, I say unto you that mine eyes are upon you. I am in your midst, and ye cannot see me; But the day soon cometh that ye shall see me, and know that I am” (D&C 38:7-8). Later, it even teaches how to gain this precious perspective, “The day shall come when you shall comprehend even God. . . . And if your eye be single to my glory, your whole bodies shall be filled with light, and there shall be no darkness in you; and that body which is filled with light comprehendeth all things. Therefore, sanctify yourselves that your minds become single to God, and the days will come that you shall see him; for he will unveil his face unto you, and it shall be in his own time, and in his own way, and according to his own will.” (D&C 88:49, 67-68).
Those seeking to understand the divine hand, whether personally or in history, can rely on the scriptural assurance, “In that day when the Lord shall come, he shall reveal all things—Things which have passed, and hidden things which no man knew, things of the earth, by which it was made, and the purpose and the end thereof—Things most precious, things that are above, and things that are beneath, things that are in the earth, and upon the earth, and in heaven” (D&C 101:32-34). The promise is that we will eventually come to an understanding of all things, including the adversity we have suffered, and the great ills of the world.
Conclusion
As with most gospel principles, balance and perspective seem key to understanding God’s providential hand in history. The scriptural record serves as God’s catalogue of instances of divine intervention. However, the list is evidently non-comprehensive, as we await “a time to come in the which nothing shall be withheld” (D&C 121:28). In that day, the Lord shall come . . . [and] and reveal all things” (D&C 101:32). Until then, those who rely on the scriptural and prophetic record can see not only God’s existence and elements of His character but also witnesses of His hand in history. Attributes especially important to providential history include God’s supremacy and omnipotence, balanced with His omniscient use of intervention, the honoring of agency, and the allowance of trials for personal growth. Latter-day Saints share these concepts with other providential theologians, but the additional modern scripture and the teachings of living prophets bolster the perspective. In particular, Latter-day Saint scripture reinforces understanding of the existence of God, his character, and reasons why one with this character would allow evil and suffering among humanity. Additionally, it portrays an eternal reward consisting of “thrones, kingdoms, principalities, and powers, dominions, all heights and depths” (D&C 132:19) that awaits those who “overcome by faith” (D&C 76:53) and are “made perfect through Jesus” (D&C 76:69).
While these principles are clear in the scriptural record, lack of spiritual understanding may explain why God’s hand isn’t often attributed in secular history. “Great spiritual events went unseen by eyes spiritually untrained,” Elder Neal A. Maxwell observed, “therefore, they were lost in the swollen sea of worldly cares.”[46] Countering this reality, the authors of scripture labored diligently to chronicle providential history. Hoping for a day when the historical and the scriptural canons coincide, Elder Maxwell concluded, “One day, the historical record will be complete; But, meanwhile, the scriptures will be our guide concerning those transcending spiritual events in human history which are saturated with significance.”[47] Studying the scriptural record, therefore, is critical in appraising God’s role in human affairs. Looking for God’s interactions with others helps modern readers recognize His hand in their own lives.
Endnotes
[1] For an examination of general and specific providence, see Stephen H. Webb, American Providence: A Nation with a Mission (New York and London: Continuum, 2004), 89-108; Richard Swinburne, Providence and the Problem of Evil (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), ix, 116-118.
[2] For background studies that address several of these issues, see Alexander B. Morrison, “God in History,” Roy A. Prete, “How Has God Intervened in History?” and Craig J. Ostler, “Earthquakes, Wars, Holocausts, Disease, and Inhumanity: Why Doesn’t God Intervene?” in Prete and others, eds., Window of Faith, 1-12, 175-211; see also LeRoy E. Whitehead, “The Mighty Acts of God: The Scriptural Witness of God’s Involvement in Human History,”herein, examining ways God has intervened in His plan for His children.
[3] The divine attributes I have chosen to focus on are only some of the attributes of God. An equally insightful essay could be written on the divine attributes of love, justice, and mercy and how they impact God’s intervention with both covenant and non-covenant individuals and groups.
[4] Brenda Deen Schildgen, Divine Providence: A History (London and New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2012), 2.
[5] Schildgen, Divine Providence, 1-3.
[6] Schildgen, Divine Providence, 5.
[7] Christopher F. Mooney, Theology and Scientific Knowledge: Changing Models of God’s Presence in the World (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996), 18.
[8] Brian Q. Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity: Trends in Providential and Mormon History,” herein.
[9] Webb, American Providence, 41; Cannon, “Faith versus Objectivity.”
[10] Mooney, Theology and Scientific Knowledge, 13.
[11] Webb, American Providence, 41.
[12] Joseph F. Smith, in Conference Report, April 1904, 2.
[13] Joseph Smith, Lectures on Faith (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1985), 3:3. See Noel B. Reynolds, “The Case for Sidney Rigdon as Author of the Lectures on Faith,” Journal of Mormon History 31/3 (Fall 2005): 1-41, with regard to Sidney Rigdon’s role in drafting the Lectures on Faith. Regardless of authorship, the conclusion for how faith is fostered remains the same.
[14] See Terryl L. Givens, “The Book of Mormon and Dialogic Revelation,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/2 (2001): 16-27, for a discussion of the role of personal revelation in Book of Mormon teachings.
[15] Possibly the greatest recorded manifestation to a prophet of the pre-mortal Christ prior to earthly advent was that experienced by the Brother of Jared, as recorded in Ether 3.
[16] Smith, Lectures on Faith ,3:3-4.
[17] Webb, American Providence, 4.
[18] For additional examples of the superiority of God, see the response of the people to Elijah’s contest with the priests of Baal (1 Kings 18:39) and Nebuchadnezzar’s reaction to Daniel’s interpretation of his dream (Daniel 2:47).
[19] Harold S. Kushner, “The Human Soul’s Quest for God,” Brigham Young Magazine, February 1995, 25.
[20] Orson F. Whitney, Conference Report, April 1921, 32-33.
[21] Ezra Taft Benson, The Teachings of Ezra Taft Benson (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1988), 695.
[22] Boyd K. Packer, “The Play and the Plan,” CES Fireside for Young Adults, May 7, 1995, 2.
[23] Ammon stressed the same idea, boasting that God had “all power, all wisdom, and all understanding” (Alma 26:35). Like King Benjamin before him, the great missionary immediately countered that God also “comprehendeth all things” (Alma 26:35).
[24] Webb, American Providence, 8.
[25] Webb, American Providence, 8.
[26] Leslie Walker, “Divine Providence,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia, ed. Charles G. Herbermann and others (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911), http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12510a.htm .
[27] E. J. Carney, “Providence of God (Theology of),” in New Catholic Encyclopedia, ed. Robert L. Fastiggi, 2nd ed. (Detroit, Gale, 2003), 11:781-784.
[28] Walter A. Elwell, “Providence of God,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1996).
[29] Spencer W. Kimball, Faith Precedes the Miracle (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1972), 95.
[30] Ibid, 96.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Swinburne, Providence and the Problem of Evil, 33.
[33] Spencer W. Kimball, Faith Precedes the Miracle, 106.
[34] Swinburne, Providence and the Problem of Evil, 32.
[35] C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (New York: Macmillan Company, 1967), 22. For a brief discussion of Lewis’ views regarding writing God into history, see Cannon’s essay earlier in this volume.
[36] Webb, American Providence, 8, 89.
[37] Webb, American Providence, 97.
[38] Kimball, Faith Precedes the Miracle, 100.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Ibid, 98.
[41] For a fuller discussion see Ostler, “Earthquakes, Wars, Holocausts, Disease, and Inhumanity: Why Doesn’t God Intervene?” 197-211; also, Brian Q Cannon , “Chastisement of the Nations, 1914-1945,” and Douglas F. Tobler, “Good from Evil in the Twentieth Century: Transcending Totalitarianism, Wars, and the Holocaust, ” in Prete and others, eds., Window of Faith, 427-46, 461-94.
[42] Neal A. Maxwell., All Things Shall Give Thee Experience (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1979), 37.
[43] Robert D. Hales, Ensign, November 1998, 14.
[44] Webb, American Providence, 95.
[45] Webb, American Providence, 95.
[46] Neal A. Maxwell, Ensign, November 1984, 9.
[47] Ibid. See LeRoy E. Whitehead, “The Mighty Acts of God: The Scriptural Witness of God’s Involvement in Human History,” herein.